Hell yeah. We would build the Mustang 5.0 of trains. We would call it the bazooka and it would go so fast it would peel your skin back. Stewardesses would lose their skirts and fall into the arms of our brave mean and women that build them. The heroes who helped rescue American culture from the jaws of extinction and saved the American economy from the brink of collapse. Because new American trains, the bazooka included, would be built right here in the USA by all our retrained workforce of previously unemployed. Yes, you've heard of TARP, this will be Operation CANVAS. "California, Nevada to Arkansas" the greatest American project of the 21st century.
Lead by newly formed entities, free of the stigma of government and corporations, will gather people from around the country to labor for love of life in the new American world. This time, we will get the balance right between the carrot and the stick because we can gather input from more countries. Now that the communist and capitalist models have proven corruptible and violent, we should envision a new world order in which life is a little more enjoyable for a greater percentage of the population.
Anyway, the new American Amtrak will run efficiently like the Japanese model, smoothly like the Mexican's, with style like the French, with speed like the German's, and with coffee like the Italian's.
High-speed rail
High-speed rail (HSR) is a type of passenger rail transport that operates significantly faster than the normal speed of rail traffic. Specific definitions by the European Union include 200 km/h (124 mph) for upgraded track and 250 km/h (155 mph) or faster for new track,[1] whilst in the United States, the U.S. Department of Transportation defines it as "reasonably expected to reach sustained speeds of more than 125 mph (201 km/h),[2]" although the Federal Railroad Administration uses a definition of above 110 mph (177 km/h).[3]
Actual maximum commercial speed is about 300 km/h (186 mph) for majority of national high speed railways (Japan, China, France, Germany, Spain, Italy, UK), and about 400 km/h (249 mph) for Maglev trains.
High speed trains travels at their maximum speed on specific tracks, generally using standard gauge (except Russia), with no at-grade crossings, and few curves.
While high-speed rail is usually designed for passenger travel, some high-speed systems also carry some kind of freight service. For instance, the French mail service La Poste owns a few special TGV trains for carrying postal freight.
The modern high-speed rail era started 6 October 1903. An electrical railcar from Siemens & Halske sped away at 203 km/h (126 mph) on the military railway track between Marienfeld and Zossen in Germany. It showed that high-speed rail was possible, and that the future was electrical. For scheduled trains, however, such a speed still was more than 60 years away.
The Italian ETR 200 in 1938 was the first high speed service train. It achieved the world mean speed record in 1938, reaching 203 km/h (126 mph) near Milan
The electrical streetcar (tram) was born as an urban transportation medium, but already before 1890 the first urban lines or networks were connected. The interurban, the remarkable hybrid between a streetcar and a conventional train, was created. Interurbans were built (and do still exist) both in Europe and Asia, but the high-speed interurban was a U.S. invention, and their constructors were the first to implement several HSR technologies. Interurbans were especially popular in the Midwest (Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin). Another stronghold was the Philadelphia area. Two essential HSR properties – streamlining to reduce air resistance, and tracks with no grade crossing – were introduced more than a hundred years ago on the interuban scene. In 1903 the officials of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition organized the Electric Railway Test Commission to conduct a series of tests to develop a carbody design that would reduce wind resistance at high speeds. After a couple of years’ research with speeds up to 70 mph (110 km/h), several streamliners were built – but for the service speeds and heavy equipment of this era, no significant operating economies were realized, and streamlining was soon discarded for another quarter century. In 1907 Philadelphia and Western Railroad (P&W) opened their double-track Strafford–Upper Darby line without a single grade crossing, and the first absolute block signal system ever installed on an interurban.[5] In the 1930s there was an attempt to revive the high speed interurban lines with cars developed that could carry 42 passengers at approximately 86 mph (138 km/h) While extensively tested, it is unknown if any lines actually operated these high speed interurban lines.[6]
[edit] Red Devils, Bullets and Electroliners
The interurban development culminated with high-speed railcars like the Red Devils (which were inaugurated in 1929), the Bullets from J. G. Brill Company (1931), and the Electroliners which in 1941-63 ran between Chicago and Milwaukee and in 1963–1976 in the Philadelphia area.
These lightweight constructions weighed only about 500 kg (1,100 lb) per seat; today’s high-speed trains are heavier. Their commercial top speed was about 145 km/h (90 mph), but they were able to reach about 160 km/h (99 mph) in test runs – the Electroliners even almost to 180 km/h (110 mph), a respectable speed for a “tram”. Station-to-stations speeds of 70 mph (113 km/h) were, not infrequently, attained on Samuel Insull’s interurbans in the Chicago area.[5]
The Bullets were the first rail equipment made after windtunnel research to reduce the air resistance;[7] they are called ‘very first high-speed “Super” trains; ancestors of the TGV, Intercity-Express, Shinkansen, and the Acela Express’.[8]
[edit] The diesel-electric hegemony
In most of the U.S., the rail passenger transport deteriorated because of the fierce competition from cars and buses, which ran on subsidized streets and highways – at many places also because of infiltration from the automaker companies (Great American streetcar scandal). The electrical trams (streetcars) and interurbans were especially sensitive to the competition, partially because they were clogged in the streets’ car jams. Yet the P&W survived, and survived very well; their successor SEPTA serves the Philadelphia area very well even today. After the Electroliners’ introduction, however, the interurbans didn’t contribute to the high-speed development.
In addition to their own Bullets, P&W bought the used Electroliners and made the Philadelphia area a refugium for old interurbans. They held a couple of Bullets almost 60 years in a commuter service; the last Bullets were phased out after surviving six generations of «modern» buses.
Some few years, diesel-electrics dominated among the high-speed trains, or proto-high-speed trains if the HSR limit is set to 200 km/h (124 mph) (in 1931, Franz Kruckenberg’s gasoline-driven Schienenzeppelin reached 230 km/h (143 mph), but didn’t come into regular service). In 1933, Germany’s Fliegender Hamburger – a train with two wagons and 102 seats – sped at 160 km/h (99 mph) in commercial traffic on the route Hamburg–Berlin.[9] The average speed, 124 km/h (77 mph), was faster than the interurbans, mostly because the train ran non-stop and without running at snail’s pace through congested city streets – though not much faster. A few similar trains were inaugurated on other mainlines. However, the Nazi regime preferred motorways and planes to railways.
[edit] Mountain-Top Road
The U.S. railways still had not given up the race. In 1931-35, the Union Pacific Railroad built a short high speed line in northern California between the Keddie Wye and Bieber near the Oregon border. The high speed rail operated with special articulated aluminum cars powered by a 600 hp (447 kW) internal combustion engine, and capable of speeds of up to 110 mph (177 km/h).[10][clarification needed]
[edit] The Pioneer Zephyr
In 1934, a diesel-electric streamliner, the legendary Pioneer Zephyr from the Budd Company, was inaugurated on the Kansas City (Missouri)–Omaha–Lincoln (Nebraska) route.[11] It had 72 seats (later expanded to 112). It was one of the first articulated trains with Jacobs bogies and was followed by several similar Zephyrs, which served U.S. railways till about 1960. In 1939, the Wisconsin people could say good morning to the first train reaching the 100 mph (161 km/h) mark in regular service. Its name was Morning Hiawatha – the last steam engine in the record books. This record should survive a quarter of a century. Yet the Italian ETR 200 sped at up to 203 km/h (126 mph) between Florence and Milan, but only on a test run.
[edit] The turbotrain siding
In the 1960s, several jet-powered and gas turbine trains appeared on the high-speed scene. These sorts of engines had a much higher power-to-weight ratio than diesels, and the fuel was cheap – which made them well fit to nonelectrified service.
In 1966, the M-497 Black Beetle was born. Two second-hand General Electric J47-19 jet engines (designed as boosters for the Convair B-36 intercontinental bomber) were mounted atop an existing Budd Rail Diesel Car body which had received a streamlined front cowling. On an arrow-straight track in Indiana and Ohio this “Jet Zephyr” set a still valid North American speed record at 296 km/h (184 mph) – but with exception of the record books, both the train and the data were ignored. In 1970, a similar train was built in the USSR.
The most innovative gas turbine train was the UAC TurboTrain made by the United Aircraft Corporation in Canada. It was a sleek, articulated train with Jacobs bogies like the Pioneer Zephyr and the Electroliners, with an aluminum carbody, and with a tilting mechanism. The turbines were small and light compared to diesel engines, too. The turbines were downrated from 600 to 300 hp (447 to 224 kW) (probably because the noise from a turbine usually increases much more than the rotation speed) and weighed only 300 lb (136 kg); each power car had up to six turbines for propulsion, and one which ran a generator for lighting etc. On a high-speed stretch in the Northeast Corridor it sped away at 170 mph (274 km/h), still U.S. record for any commercial train. More important, the train was able to run at high speed on mediocre tracks – in theory. Canadian and U.S. railroads bought five and two, respectively, and they were inaugurated in 1968 though the Canadian ones paused till 1973 after problems during the cold winter 1969. In service, they were limited to 100 mph (161 km/h). They reduced the journey time from about five to about four hours on the Toronto–Montreal line; with an availability rate of over 97% they offered two departures each way a day in the years 1973-82. After that, the last UAC TurboTrain was parked.
The more mundane French turbotrains and their derivatives (Turboliners etc.) were the most successful of all passenger turbotrains, both in North America and in France itself. The French RTG Turbotrain ran till 2005 and survived all other turbotrains in regular service. Their commercial speed didn’t surpass 160 km/h (99 mph), but their follow-up, the very first TGV, reached 318 km/h (198 mph), which is still world record for turbotrains. SNCF got valuable experiences with this experimental train, and the commercial TGVs were very similar to the TGV-001 – but rising oil prices made SNCF switching to electricity. The turbotrains were noisy, too, especially when starting at the stations.
In 2002, Bombardier tried to breathe new life into the turbotrain technology with its JetTrain. As of 2010, it has yet to amount to anything more than an experimental train.
[edit] Shinkansen
The true HSR breakthrough started in Japan. In this densely populated country, especially the 45-million-people area between Tokyo and Osaka, the traffic during the 1950s congested to reach maximum capacity. Both the roads and the narrow-gauge railways were jammed.[12] Japan in the 1950s was a crowded resource-limited nation that for security reasons did not want to import petroleum, and desperately needed a way to transport its millions of people in and between cities. So in 1957, the engineers at local private Odakyu Electric Railway in Greater Tokyo area had launched its Romancecar 3000 SE. This Romancecar set a world record for narrow gauge trains at 145 km/h (90 mph), giving the Odakyu engineers confidence they could safely and reliably build even faster trains at standard gauge.[12] Some of those engineers under government supervision started planning of the first intercity dedicated high-speed line. After initial feasibility tests, the plan was fast tracked and construction started in April 20, 1959,[13] and test runs in 1963 hit top speeds at 256 km/h (159 mph). And in October 1964, just in time for the Olympics, they opened the first modern high speed rail, the Shinkansen, Tōkaidō Shinkansen, between the two cities.[14]
The first Shinkansen trains, the 0 Series Shinkansen, built by Kawasaki Heavy Industries[14] – in English often called ‘’Bullet’’ Trains, after the original Japanese name Dangan Ressha(弾丸列車) – outclassed the earlier fast trains in commercial service. They ran the 515 km (320 mi) distance with a top speed at 210 km/h (130 mph) and an average speed at 162.8 km/h (101.2 mph) with stops at Nagoya and Kyoto. But the speed was only a part of the Shinkansen revolution. The earlier high-speed or proto-high-speed trains and railcars were few and far between (ten Red Devils, 15 Brill Bullets, a few Zephyrs with different forenames, two Elelectroliners, one Morning Hiawatha, one Fliegender Hamburger, etc., each with 150 seats at best). While these services were initially limited, Shinkansen offered HSR for the masses. The first Bullet trains had 12 cars; later versions have up to 16,[15] and there are double-deck trains too, to increase the capacity.[16][17]
After three years, more than 100 million passengers had used the trains, and the first billion was passed in 1976.[18] Later, the Shinkansen system has grown to a 2,459 km (1,528 mi) network, and the Tōkaidō Shinkansen still is the world's busiest high-speed rail line. Up to ten trains per hour with 16 cars each (1,300 seats capacity) run in each direction with a minimum of 3 minutes between trains.[19] Though largely a long-distance transport system, the Shinkansen also serves commuters who travel to work in metropolitan areas from outlying cities.[20]
In March 2011, a Hayabusa or Falcon train started operating from Tokyo to northern Japan with carriages outfitted to airline business class standard. Capable of travelling at 300 km/h (190 mph) it can make the 675 km (419 mi) trip to Aomori in just over 3 hours.[21]
The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, which devastated Sendai, a city northeast of Tokyo, made all Shinkansen trains automatically stop. No Shinkansen passengers suffered, and the Tōkaidō Shinkansen between Tokyo and Osaka resumed operation several hours after the disasters, while the Tōhoku Shinkansen remained out of service for several days.[22]
[edit] Introduction in Europe
High-speed lines in Europe.320-350 km/h270-300 km/h250 km/h200-230 km/hMain article: High-speed rail in EuropeJapan’s Shinkansen success contributed to a revival for the HSR idea in Europe – together with rising oil prices, a growing environmental interest, and rising traffic congestion on the roads.
In Europe, high-speed rail started during the International Transport Fair in Munich in June 1965, when DB Class 103 hauled a total of 347 demonstration trains at 200 km/h (124 mph) between Munich and Augsburg. The first regular service at this speed was the TEE "Le Capitole" between Paris and Toulouse with specially adapted SNCF Class BB 9200 locomotives (May 1967).
Great Britain introduced Europe’s first regular above-200 km/h (124 mph)-service, albeit with a small margin, and without building new lines. In the years 1976-82 they made 95 diesel-electric train sets of the type InterCity 125 – called so because of their maximum speed at 125 mph (201 km/h), compared to 100 mph (161 km/h) for their forerunners. Their acceleration was better, too. Thus journey times were reduced, e.g. by an hour on the East Coast Main Line, and the passenger numbers soared. The IC 125 was planned to be followed by a tilting train, APT, to maximize the speed on twisted lines from the Victorian times – but the tilting mechanism brought on nausea in some of the passengers, and the APT project was shelved. This prolonged the IC 125’s lifetime, and even today they serve the nonelectrified mainlines.
In the Continental Europe, several countries started to build new high-speed lines during the 1970s – Italy’s ‘’Direttissima’’ between Rome and Florence, Western Germany’s Hannover–Würzburg and Stuttgart–Mannheim lines, and France’s Paris–Lyon TGV line (LGV Sud-Est). The latter was the world’s fastest when it was completed in 1983 (the Paris–Dijon partition was opened in 1981), with a maximum speed at 260 km/h (162 mph) and average at 214 km/h (133 mph). Fares were affordable and the line became very popular; the air routes between these cities were practically eliminated when the train trips shrunk from about 3½ to two hours. France went on building an extensive high-speed network. In combination with the Belgian and British lines, the Paris-Lille-Calais line allowed the opening of the first HSR international services: Paris-London (1994), London-Brussels (1994), both via the Channel Tunnel,[23] and Brussels-Paris (1995).[24] Germany followed up with its own high-speed network, and after Germany was re-united in 1990, the Hamburg–Berlin line again became a mainline.
Spain’s first high speed line opened in 1992 between Madrid and Seville. In 2005, the Spanish Government announced an ambitious plan, (PEIT 2005-2020)[25] envisioning that by 2020, 90 percent of the population will live within 50 km (31 mi) of a station served by AVE. Spain began building the largest HSR network in Europe: five new lines have been opened (Madrid-Zaragoza-Lleida-Tarragona-Barcelona, Córdoba- Malaga, Madrid-Toledo, Madrid-Segovia-Valladolid, Madrid-Cuenca-Valencia) and another 2,219 km (1,379 mi) are currently under construction.[26] As of December 2010, the Spanish AVE system is the longest HSR network in Europe and the second in the world, after China.[27]
[edit] High-speed rail in China
Main article: High-speed rail in ChinaIn the middle of the 1990s, China's trains used to travel at a top speed of around 60 km/h (37 mph).[28] To increase railway transportation speed and capacity, the Ministry of Railways (MOR) has continuously increased the speed of its commercial train service on existing lines. From 1997 to 2007, the speed of China's railways increased six times, boosting passenger train speed on 22,000 km (14,000 mi) of tracks to 120 km/h (75 mph), on 14,000 km (8,700 mi) of tracks to 160 km/h (99 mph), on 2,876 km (1,787 mi) of tracks to 200 km/h (124 mph) and on 846 km (526 mi) of tracks to 250 km/h (155 mph).[29]
The state plan to develop high speed railways in China first began in the early 1990s. The Ministry of Railways submitted a proposal to build the Beijing–Shanghai high speed railway to the National People's Congress in December 1990.[30] In 1995, Premier Li Peng announced that preparatory work on the Beijing Shanghai HSR would begin in the 9th Five Year Plan (1996–2000). The MOR's initial design for the Jinghu high-speed line was completed and led to a suggestion report for state approval in June 1998. The construction plan finally been determined at 2004 beginning after five years' debate on whether to use rail track or the maglev technology.[31][32]
On 7 January 2004, at a regular meeting of the State Council chaired by Premier Wen Jiabao, the nation’s “medium-and-long term plan of railway network” was discussed and passed in principle. The plan comprised a high-speed railway network consisting of four north-south lines and four west-east lines, with the Beijing-Shanghai railway placed at the top.[32]
When China first decided to develop high speed rail, the original idea was to research and develop domestic technology to reach a world standard. In 1998, China started the construction of its first high speed rail, the Qinhuangdao–Shenyang Passenger Dedicated Line, which was opened in 2003, with a designed speed of 200 km/h (124 mph), and several prototypes meant to reach 300 km/h (186 mph) were tested here, including “China Star”, “Pioneer” and latterly “Changbai Mountain”. However, the fastest operating speed achieved by “Changbai Mountain” was only 180 km/h (112 mph). “China Star” reached 321 km/h (199 mph) in 2003 during a test run but performed poor in daily services.
By 2007, the top speed of Qinshen PDL was increased to 250 km/h (155 mph). On 19 April 2008, Hefei–Nanjing PDL opened, with a top speed of 250 km/h (155 mph). On 1 August 2008, the Beijing–Tianjin Intercity Line was opened, and its top speed reached 350 km/h (217 mph). New trainsets, CRH2C and CRH3C, with designed top operating speed 350 km/h (217 mph), were first put into commercial service. Currently the fastest CRH Service is on the Wuhan–Guangzhou line, opened on 26 December 2009. It travels 968 kilometres (601 mi) in 3 hours reaching top speeds of 350 kilometres per hour (217 mph) and averaging 310 kilometres per hour (190 mph).
On 26 October 2010, China opened its 15th high speed rail, the Shanghai–Hangzhou line, and the CRH380A trainset manufactured by CSR Sifang started regular service. the Beijing–Shanghai High-Speed Railway is set to open by June 2011, The railway line is the first one in the world with designed top speed of 380 km/h (236 mph) in commercial service. and will use the new CRH380 trainsets.[33][34]
Currently China has the world’s longest high-speed rail network with about 8,358 km (5,193 mi)[35] of routes capable for at least 200 km/h (124 mph) running in service as of January 2011, including 2,197 km (1,365 mi) of rail lines with top speeds of 350 km/h (217 mph).[36] According to the MOR's “Mid-to-Long Term Railway Network Plan (revised in 2008)”, the National High-Speed Rail Grid is composed of 8 high-speed rail corridors, 4 north-south corridors and 4 east-west corridors; together with some less important lines the total length will be about 12,000 km (7,456 mi).
In the last year of 2010, China committed investment of CN¥709.1 billion (US$107.9 billion) in railway construction. In the coming year of 2011, China is planning to invest some CN¥700 billion (US$106 billion) in railway construction, start construction of 70 railway projects, including 15 high-speed rail projects. 4,715 kilometres (2,930 mi) of new high-speed railways will be opened, and by the end of this year, China will have 13,073 kilometres (8,123 mi) of railways capable for 200+ km/h running, one year ahead of the original schedule.[37]
According to China Securities Journal, China plans to invest $451 to $602 billion in its high-speed rail network between 2011 to 2015.
In April 2011, the Railway Minister Sheng Guangzu announced that, due to costs concern and increasing the margin of safety, the top speeds of all types of wheeled trains will be reduced to 300 km/h (186 mph), starting from 1 July 2011.[38] However, an exception applies for some lines, including Beijing–Tianjin and Shanghai–Hangzhou, which will still run at up to 350 km/h (217 mph), according to China Railway Ministry.[citation needed]
On 23 July 2011, around 40 people died and 191 were injured in a train accident on a China’s high-speed line raising doubts about China’s high speed system safety[39][40][41]. The accident occurred when a train traveling near Wenzhou lost power after it was struck by lightning. Signals also malfunctioned, causing another train to rear-end the stationary train[42][43][44].[45][46]
Following the deadly crash, China plans to suspend new railway project approvals and launch safety checks on existing equipment.[47][48]
[edit] High-speed rail in the United States
Ten rail corridors identified for potential high-speed development by the federal government in 2009.Main article: High-speed rail in the United StatesHigh-speed rail in the United States currently consists of one high-speed rail service:[49]:5 Amtrak's Acela Express runs on the Northeast Corridor from Boston to Washington, D.C. Unlike Asian or European systems, the Acela shares its tracks with conventional rail, and thus is limited to an average speed of 68 mph (109 km/h) for the entire distance with brief segments up to 150 mph (240 km/h). A federal allocation of $8 billion for high-speed rail projects as a part of the 2009 stimulus package has prompted U.S. federal and state planners to coordinate the expansion of high-speed service to ten other major rail corridors.[50]
America's first dedicated high-speed rail infrastructure plans are most advanced in California, consisting of a high speed line between Anaheim and San Francisco via Los Angeles and San Jose. The line is scheduled to begin construction by September 2012 (however, delays are expected due to political infighting) in the Central Valley.[51] The new line planned for construction in California would have a top speed in excess of 150 mph (240 km/h) and is classified as a High-Speed Rail–Express corridor.[52]
[edit] High-speed rail in Russia
Main article: High-speed rail in Russia
- The Moscow – Saint Petersburg Railway is Russia's highest speed railway with a top speed of 250 km/h (155 mph).[53] The first upgraded 250 km/h service using Siemens Velaro RUS (Sapsan) trains went into service on December 26, 2009.
- Helsinki – Saint Petersburg: 200 km/h high-speed service using Karelian Trains Class Sm6 (Allegro) trains started on December 12, 2010, cutting down travel time from 5.5 hours to 3.5 hours. The trains go 200 km/h on most of the Russian part, and 220 km/h on a short stretch in Finland.
- Moscow-Nizhny Novgorod route. The high-speed traffic in Nizhny Novgorod began in July 2010.[54] Two Sapsan trains makes shuttle trips between Nizhny Novgorod and Moscow and one between Nizhny Novgorod and Saint Petersburg. The latter route takes 8 hours and 30 minutes, as against previously 14 hours.[55]
- New Moscow – Saint Petersburg High-Speed Line: In February, 2010, RZD announced that it will unveil proposals in March, 2010, for a new "European standard" high-speed line between Saint Petersburg and Moscow. The new line would be built to normal Russian gauge and would likely be built parallel to the existing line.[56] At an event on April 1, it was announced that the new Moscow – Saint Petersburg high-speed line would allow trains to run at speeds up to 400 km/h. The total journey time would be cut from 3h 45m to 2h 30m. The new line is expected to make extense use of bridges, tunnels and viaducts. Finance will be provided by a public-private finance vehicle. The line is expected to carry 14 million people in its first year. Representatives from many other high-speed lines will be consulted, in a effort to avoid construction delays and design flaws.[57]
According to RZhD Director Vladimir Yakunin, Russia will have several high-speed railroads by 2012 - 2014.[58]
[edit] Definition of high-speed rail
See also: Passenger rail terminologyThere are a number of different definitions for high-speed rail in use worldwide and there is no single standard; however, there are certain parameters that are unique to high-speed rail. UIC (International Union of Railways) and EC Directive 96/58 define high-speed rail as systems of rolling stock and infrastructure which regularly operate at or above 250 km/h (155 mph) on new tracks, or 200 km/h (124 mph) on existing tracks.[1] However lower speeds can be required by local constraints.[1] A definitive aspect of high speed rail is the use of continuous welded rail which reduces track vibrations and discrepancies between rail segments enough to allow trains to pass at speeds in excess of 200 km/h (124 mph). Depending on design speed, banking and the forces deemed acceptable to the passengers, curves radius is above 4.5 kilometres (2.8 mi), and for lines capable for 350 km/h (217 mph) running, typically at 7 to 9 kilometres (4.3 to 5.6 mi). There are also a number of characteristics common to most high-speed rail systems but not required: almost all are electrically driven via overhead lines and have in-cab signalling as well as no level crossings. Advanced switches using very low entry and frog angles are also often used. Magnetic levitation trains fall under the category of high-speed rail due to their association with track oriented vehicles; however their inability to operate on conventional 'rails' often leads to their classification in a separate category.
In the United States, high-speed rail is defined by the U.S. Department of Transportation as reasonably expected to reach sustained speeds of more than 125 mph (201 km/h),[2] and having a speed above 110 mph (177 km/h) by the United States Federal Railroad Administration.[3]
In Japan, high speed Shinkansen lines use standard gauge track rather than narrow gauge track used on most other Japanese lines. These travel at speeds in excess of 260 km/h (162 mph) without level crossings.[59]
In China, there are two grades of high speed lines: Firstly, slower lines running at speeds of between 200 and 250 km/h (124 and 155 mph) which may comprise either freight or passenger trains. Secondly, passenger dedicated high speed rail lines operating at top speeds of up to 350 km/h (217 mph).[60]
[edit] Rationale
In both Japan and France the initial impetus for the introduction of high speed rail was the need for additional capacity to meet increasing demand for passenger rail travel. By the mid-1950s, the Tōkaidō Main Line in Japan was operating at full capacity, and construction of the first segment of the Tōkaidō Shinkansen between Tokyo and Osaka started in 1959. The Tōkaidō Shinkansen opened on October 1, 1964, in time for the Tokyo Olympics. The situation for the first line in Japan was different from the subsequent lines. The route was already so densely populated and rail oriented that highway development would be extremely costly and one single line between Tokyo and Osaka could bring service to over half the nation's population. In 1959 that was nearly 45 million people; today it is well over 65 million. The Tōkaidō Shinkansen line is the most heavily traveled high speed line in the world, carrying 138 million people in 2009,[61] and the entire Shinkansen network, carrying 322 million, still transports more passengers than all other high speed rail lines in the world combined.
In France the main line between Paris and Lyon was projected to run out of capacity by 1970. In both cases the choice to build a completely separate passenger-only line allowed for the much straighter higher speed lines. The dramatically reduced travel times on both lines, bringing cities within three hours of one another, caused explosions in ridership.[62] It was the commercial success of both lines that inspired those countries and their economies to expand or start high speed rail networks.
In post-World War II United States, improvements in automobiles and aircraft made those means practical for a greater portion of the population than previously. In Europe and Japan, emphasis was given to rebuilding the railways after the war. In the United States, emphasis was given to airports and an extensive national interstate highway system. The U.S. railway had been less competitive as a means of transportation. The lower population density in North America allowed easier construction of a national highway network, but mass highway construction would not have been as easy in the high population densities of the European nations and Japan. Presently, however, as energy costs continue to increase, rail ridership is now increasing across the United States.[63]
In China, the plans for the largest high-speed railway network in history were driven by a combination of capacity constraints on existing lines and a desire to shorten journey times across the nation, whilst promoting development along the route. The construction schedule was significantly accelerated due to additional funding in the 4 trillion CNY stimulus package of 2008 and a number of lines are due to be completed by 2013.
Travel by rail becomes more competitive in areas of higher population density or where gasoline is expensive, because conventional trains are more fuel efficient than cars when ridership is high, similar to other forms of mass transit. Very few high-speed trains consume diesel or other fossil fuels but the power stations that provide electric trains with power can consume fossil fuels. In Japan and France, with very extensive high speed rail networks, a large proportion of electricity comes from nuclear power.[64] Even using electricity generated from coal or oil, high speed trains are significantly more fuel efficient per passenger per kilometer traveled than the typical automobile because of economies of scale in generator technology.[65] For example, on the Eurostar, emissions from travelling by train from London to Paris are 90% lower than by flying.[66] Rail networks, like highways, require large fixed capital investments and thus require a blend of high density and government investment to be competitive against existing capital infrastructure for aircraft and automobiles.[citation needed] Urban density and mass transit have been key factors in the success of European and Japanese railway transport, especially in countries such as the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Spain and France.
[edit] Technology
The TGV Sud-Est fleet was built between 1978 and 1988 and connected Paris with Lyon. Originally the sets were built to run at 270 km/h (168 mph), but most were upgraded to 300 km/h (186 mph) for the opening of the LGV Méditerranée.Much of the technology behind high-speed rail is an improved application of mature standard gauge rail technology using overhead electrification. By building a new rail infrastructure with 20th century engineering, including elimination of constrictions such as roadway at-grade (level) crossings, frequent stops, a succession of curves and reverse curves, and not sharing the right-of-way with freight or slower passenger trains, higher speeds (250–320 km/h, 155–199 mph) are maintained. Total cost of ownership of HSR systems is generally lower than the total costs of competing alternatives (new highway or air capacity). Japanese systems are often more expensive than their counterparts but more comprehensive because they have their own dedicated elevated guideway, no traffic crossings, and disaster monitoring systems. Despite this the largest of the Japanese system's cost is related to the boring of tunnels through mountains, as was in Taiwan. Recent advances in wheeled trains in the last few decades have pushed the speed limits past 400 km/h (250 mph), among the advances being tilting trainsets, aerodynamic designs (to reduce drag, lift, and noise), air brakes, regenerative braking, stronger engines, dynamic weight shifting, etc. Some of the advances were to fix problems, like the Eschede disaster. European high-speed routes typically combine segments on new track, where the train runs at full commercial speed, with some sections of older track on the extremities of the route, near cities.
In France, the cost of construction (which was €10 million/km (US$15.1 million/km) for LGV Est) is minimised by adopting steeper grades rather than building tunnels and viaducts. However, in mountainous Switzerland, tunnels are inevitable. Because the lines are dedicated to passengers, gradients of 3.5%, rather than the previous maximum of 1–1.5% for mixed traffic, are used. Possibly more expensive land is acquired in order to build straighter lines which minimize line construction as well as operating and maintenance costs. In other countries high-speed rail was built without those economies so that the railway can also support other traffic, such as freight. Experience has shown however, that trains of significantly different speeds cause massive decreases of line capacity. As a result, mixed-traffic lines are usually reserved for high-speed passenger trains during the daytime, while freight trains go at night. In some cases, night-time high-speed trains are even diverted to lower speed lines in favour of freight traffic.[citation needed]
[edit] High-speed railways by region
Operational high-speed lines in EuropeOperational high-speed lines in East Asia320–350 km/h (199–217 mph)270–300 km/h (168–186 mph)250 km/h (155 mph)200–230 km/h (124–143 mph)Under constructionOther railwaysMain article: High-speed rail by countrySee also: Planned high-speed rail by countryThe following table shows all high speed dedicated lines (speed over 250 km/h, 155 mph) in service and under construction, listed by country. Based on UIC figures (International Union of Railways), it has been updated with other sources (see discussion). Since the purpose is to convey updated information with unified criteria, planned lines are not included. Not all rail lines are dedicated, that is, some high speed rail lines, such as Moscow-St. Petersburg, share lines with local and/or freight trains.
Uzbekistan Tashkent–Samarkand high-speed rail line 344 km
CountryIn operation (km) Under construction (km) Total Country (km) China
6,158 14,160 20,318 Spain
2,665 1,781 3,744 Japan
2,118 377 2,495 France
1,872 730 (140+106+302+182) 2,602 Germany
1,032 378 1,410 Italy
923 92[citation needed] 1,015[citation needed] Russia
780 400 1,180 Turkey
447 591 1,038 Taiwan
345 0 345 South Korea
330 82 412 Belgium
209 0 209 Netherlands
120 0 120 United Kingdom
113 0 113 Switzerland
35 72 107 [edit] Maximum speed records
Main article: Land speed record for railed vehicles[edit] Maximum speed in service
The Shanghai Maglev Train reaches top speeds of 431 km/h (268 mph), the fastest high-speed train in service in the world.The term "maximum speed" has many meanings here. It can reflect:
- maximum average speed between two scheduled stops based on the running times in timetables - daily operation.
- maximum speed at which a train is allowed to run safely as set by law or policy on a straight section in daily service with minimal constraints (MOR)
- the maximum speed at which an unmodified train is proved to be capable of running
- the maximum speed a specially modified train is proved to be capable of running.
A one time specially modified system and trainset record (see land speed record for railed vehicles) was set by the manned TGV's 574.8 km/h (357.2 mph) run. This run was for proof of concept and engineering, not to test normal passenger service.
The record for railed vehicles is 10,325 km/h (6,416 mph) by an unmanned rocket sled by the United States Air Force.
The maximum speed an unmodified train is capable of running was set by the non-wheeled 581 km/h (361 mph) JR-Maglev MLX01 run in 2003. However, even this is not necessarily suitable for passenger operation as there can be concerns such as noise, cost, deceleration time in an emergency, etc.
The Shanghai Maglev Train reaches 431 km/h (268 mph) during its daily service between Longyang Road and Pudong International Airport, holds the speed record of any commercial train services. Besides maglev, the fastest maximum operating speed (MOR) of any segment of any high speed rail line is currently 350 km/h (217 mph), a record held by multiple lines in China, first achieved by the Beijing–Tianjin Intercity Railway in August 2008. In October 2010, the trains on Shanghai–Hangzhou High-Speed Railway have shown an unmodified capability of running 416.6 km/h (258.9 mph) in tests, and thus have been set to run 350 km/h (217 mph) in normal operation.[67]
The highest scheduled average speed between two scheduled stops was held by China Railway High-speed service on Wuhan-Guangzhou High-Speed Railway.[68], from December 26, 2009, until January 29, 2010. Non-stop trains on this line covered the 922 km (573 mi) journey in 2 hours, 57 minutes, at an average speed of 312.5 km/h (194.2 mph) from Wuhan to Guangzhou North. Due to high costs and safety concerns the top speeds in China have been reduced to 300 km/h (186 mph) from July 1, 2011.[38].
From mid 2011, the fastest operating train is the French "TGV POS" with a commercial maximum speed of 320 km/h (199 mph).
[edit] Records in trial runs
Year Country Train Speed
km/h | mphComments 1963 Japan Shinkansen 256 159 First country to develop HSR technology 1965 West Germany Class 103 locomotive 200 124 Second country to develop HSR technology 1967 France TGV 001 318 198 Third country to develop HSR technology. Current record for gas-turbine powered train. 1972 Japan Shinkansen 286 178 1974 West Germany EET-01 230 143 1974 France Aérotrain 430.2 267 High speed monorail hovercraft train 1975 West Germany Comet 401.3 249 Steam rocket propulsion 1978 Japan HSST-01 307.8 191 Auxiliary rocket propulsion 1978 Japan HSST-02 110 68 1979 Japan Shinkansen 319 198 1979 Japan ML-500R (unmanned) 504 313 Magnetic levitation train 1979 Japan ML-500R (unmanned) 517 321 Magnetic levitation train 1981 France TGV 380 236 1985 West Germany InterCityExperimental 324 201 1987 Japan MLU001 (manned) 400.8 249 Magnetic levitation train 1988 West Germany InterCityExperimental 406 252 1988 Italy ETR 500-X 319 198 Fourth country to develop HSR technology 1988 West Germany TR-06 412.6 256 1989 West Germany TR-07 436 271 1990 France TGV 515.3 320 1992 Japan Shinkansen 350 217 1993 Japan Shinkansen 425 264 1993 Germany TR-07 450 280 Magnetic levitation train 1994 Japan MLU002N 431 268 Magnetic levitation train 1996 Japan Shinkansen 446 277 1997 Japan MLX01 550 342 Magnetic levitation train 1999 Japan MLX01 552 343 Magnetic levitation train 2002 Spain AVE S-102 (Talgo 350) 362 225 Fifth country to develop HSR technology 2002 China China Star 321 199 Sixth country to develop HSR technology 2003 China Siemens Transrapid 08 501 311 2003 Japan MLX01 581 361 Current world record holder for unconventional train 2004 South Korea HSR-350x 352.4 219 Seventh country to develop HSR technology 2006 Spain AVE S-103 (Siemens Velaro) 404 251 Unmodified commercial trainset 2007 France V150 574.8 357 Current world record holder on conventional rails 2007 Taiwan 700T series train 350 217 2008 China CRH3 394.3 245 2010 China CRH380AL 486.1 302 Current world record holder for unmodified commercial trainset 2011 China CRH380BL 487.3 303 Modified commercial trainset [edit] Target areas for high-speed trains
Density of High-speed railway in Europe. km per million inhabitants.
Density of High-speed railway in East-Asia. km per million inhabitants.The early target areas, identified by France, Japan, and the U.S., were connections between pairs of large cities. In France, this was Paris–Lyon, in Japan, Tokyo–Osaka, and in the U.S. the proposals are in high-density areas. The only rail service at present in the U.S. using high-speed trains is the Acela Express in the Northeast Corridor between Boston, New York and Washington, D.C.; it uses tilting trains to achieve speeds of up to 240 km/h (150 mph) on existing tracks. Chicago, with its central location and metropolitan population of approximately 10 million people, is envisioned as the hub of a national high-speed rail network in the U.S. The beginning Midwest phases study a Minneapolis-Milwaukee-Chicago-Detroit link; a Kansas City-St Louis-Chicago link; and a Chicago-Indianapolis-Cincinnati-Columbus, OH link.
In European countries, South Korea, and Japan, dense networks of city subways and railways provide connections with high speed rail lines. Some argue[who?] that cities lacking dense intra-city rail infrastructure, like some cities in the USA, would find low ridership for high speed rail. The argument is that it is incompatible with existing automobile infrastructure. (People will want to drive when traveling in city, so they might as well drive the entire trip). However, others contend that this does not square with the high use of rail transport currently in the Northeast Corridor, where many people living in cities outside the rail link, drive to the commuter train and then commute by train the rest of the way, similar to the way many people drive to an airport, park their cars and then fly to their final destination. Car rentals and taxis can also supplement local public transportation. Increased commercial development is also projected near the destination stations.
Since in Japan intra-city rail daily usage per capita is the highest,[citation needed] it follows naturally[dubious – discuss] that ridership of 6 billion passengers[69] exceeds the French TGV of 1 billion (until 2003), the only other system to reach a billion cumulative passengers.[70] For comparison, the world's fleet of 22,685 aircraft carried 2.1 billion passengers in 2006, according to International Civil Aviation Organization.
The California High-Speed Rail Authority is currently planning lines from the San Francisco Bay and Sacramento to Los Angeles and Irvine via the Central Valley, as well as a line from Los Angeles to San Diego via the Inland Empire. The Texas High Speed Rail and Transportation Corporation is lobbying for a high-speed rail and multimodal transportation corridor in Texas, dubbed the Texas T-Bone. The T-Bone would link Dallas and San Antonio via the South Central Corridor; from roughly the midpoint between these two cities, the Brazos Express corridor would provide a connection to Houston.[71][72] New York State Senator Caesar Trunzo announced a long-term plan to bring high-speed rail service between Buffalo and New York City, via Albany, to under three hours.[73]
Later high speed rail lines, such as the LGV Atlantique, the LGV Est, and most high speed lines in Germany, were designed as feeder routes branching into conventional rail lines, serving a larger number of medium-sized cities.
A side effect of the first high-speed rail lines in France was the opening up of previously isolated regions to fast economic development. Some newer high-speed lines have been planned primarily for this purpose, such as the Madrid–Sevilla line and the proposed Amsterdam–Groningen line. Cities relatively close to a major city may see an increase in population, but those farther away may actually lose population (except for tourist spots), having a ripple effect on local economies.
Five years after construction began on the line, the first Japanese high-speed rail line opened on the eve of the 1964 Olympics in Tokyo, connecting the capital with Osaka. The first French high-speed rail line, or Ligne à grande vitesse (LGV), was opened in 1981 by SNCF, the French rail agency, planning starting in 1966 and construction in 1976.
'Market segmentation has principally focused on the business travel market. The French original focus on business travelers is reflected by the early design of the TGV trains, including the bar car. Pleasure travel was to be a secondary market; now many of the French extensions connect with vacation beaches on the Atlantic and Mediterranean, as well as major amusement parks and also the very popular Alpine ski resorts in France or Switzerland. Friday evenings are the peak time for TGVs (train à grande vitesse) (Metzler, 1992). The system has lowered prices on long distance travel to compete more effectively with air services, and as a result some cities within an hour of Paris by TGV have become commuter communities, thus increasing the market while restructuring land use.' (Levinson, D.)
On the Paris - Lyon service, the number of passengers grew to impressive numbers justifying the introduction of double-decks coaches on the TGV trainsets.
Other target areas include freight lines, such as the Trans-Siberian Railway in Russia, which would allow 3 day Far East to Europe service for freight as opposed to months by ship (but still slower than air), and allow just in time deliveries. High speed north-south freight lines in Switzerland are under construction, avoiding slow mountainous truck traffic, and lowering labour costs. Most recently the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico has highlighted as one of the most probable areas for the development of high speed rail in Latin America with the Transpeninsular Fast Train for bidding in September 2011.[74]
[edit] Road rail parallel layout
Road Rail Parallel Layout uses land beside highways for railway lines. Examples include the HSR line from Paris to Lyon with 15% of its length along highways, and the line between Cologne and Frankfurt with 70% of its length along highways.[75]
[edit] Comparison with other modes of transport
E4 Series ShinkansenHigh speed rail is often viewed as an isolated system and simply as advantageous or disadvantageous as compared to other transport systems, but all transport systems must work together to maximize benefits. A good HSR system has capacity for non-stop and local services and has good connectivity with other transport systems. HSR, like any transport system, is not inherently convenient, fast, clean, nor comfortable. All of this depends on design, implementation, maintenance, operation and funding. Operational smoothness is often more indicative of organizational discipline than technological prowess.
Due to current infrastructure designs in many nations, there are constraints on the growth of the highway and air travel systems. Some key factors promoting HSR are that airports and highways have no room to expand, and are often overloaded. High-speed rail has the potential for high capacity on its fixed corridors (double decked E4 Series Shinkansen can carry 1,634 seated passengers, double that of an Airbus A380 in all economy class, and even more if standing passengers are allowed), and has the potential to relieve congestion on the other systems. Well-established high speed rail systems in use today are more environmentally friendly than air or road travel. This is due to:
- displaced usage from more environmentally damaging modes of transport.
- lower energy consumption per passenger kilometer
- reduced land usage for a given capacity compared to motorways
[edit] Automobiles
EurostarHSR is competitive with cars on shorter distances, 50–150 kilometres (30–90 mi), for example for commuting, if there is road congestion or expensive parking fees.
High-speed rail has the advantage over automobiles in that it can accommodate more passengers at speeds far faster than those allowed by car in most countries. The lower limit for HSR (200 km/h, 125 mph) is substantially faster than the highest road speed limit in most countries. Ignoring the few countries without a general speed limit, the speed limit is rarely higher than 130 km/h (80 mph). For journeys that connect city centre to city centre, HSR's advantage is increased due to the lower speed limits (and frequent traffic jams) within most urban areas. Generally, the longer the journey, the better the time advantage of rail over road if going to the same destination.
Moreover, railroad tracks permit a far higher throughput of passengers per hour than a road the same width. A high speed rail needs just a double track railway, one track for each direction. A typical capacity is 15 trains per hour and 800 passengers per train (as for the Eurostar sets), which implies a capacity of 12,000 passengers per hour in each direction. By way of contrast, the Highway Capacity Manual gives a maximum capacity for a single lane of highway of 2,250 passenger cars per hour (excluding trucks or RVs). Assuming an average vehicle occupancy of 1.57 people,[76] a standard twin track railway has a typical capacity 13% greater than a 6-lane highway (3 lanes each way), while requiring only 40% of the land (1.0/3.0 versus 2.5/7.5 hectares per kilometer of direct/indirect land consumption). This means that typical passenger rail carries 2.83 times as many passengers per hour per meter (width) as a road. Some passenger rail systems, such as the Tokaido Shinkansen line in Japan, have much higher ratios (with as many as 20,000 passengers per hour per direction). Congested roadways tend to be commuter – these carry fewer than 1.57 persons per vehicle (Washington State Department of Transportation, for instance, uses 1.2 persons per vehicle) during commute times. Congestion also causes the maximum throughput of a lane to decrease.
[edit] Aircraft
[edit] Optimal distance
The ETR 500 "Frecciarossa" of the Italian Railways, with a maximum speed of 300 km/h (190 mph). It takes an hour from Milan to Bologna, while a plane with taxis takes an hour and a half.While commercial high-speed trains have maximum speeds slower than jet aircraft, they have advantages over air travel for short distances. They connect city centre rail stations to each other, while air transport connects airports outside city centres. However unless air travel is severely congested, there is often not a financial basis for building an HSR system from scratch.[citation needed]
HSR is best suited for journeys of 2 to 3 hours (about 250–900 km or 160–560 mi), for which the train can beat air and car trip time. When traveling less than about 650 km (400 mi), the process of checking in and going through security screening at airports, as well as the journey to the airport, makes the total air journey time no faster than HSR. Authorities in Europe treat HSR for city pairs as competitive with passenger air at 4 to 4½ hours, allowing a 1 hour flight at least 40 minutes at each point for travel to and from the airport, check-in, security, boarding, disembarkation, and baggage retrieval.[77]
Part of HSR's edge may be travel cost. As an example, the 520 km (320 mi) flight from Nanjing to Wuhan cost 730 yuan, while the intercity bullet trains beginning service in 2009 have second-class tickets for 180 yuan.[78]
Part of HSR's edge is convenience. These conveniences include the lack of a requirement to check baggage, no repeated queuing for check-in, security and boarding, as well as high on-time reliability as compared to air. HSR has more amenities, such as cell phone support, booth tables, elaborate power outlets (AC mains outlet vs DC 12 V outlet), elaborate food service, no low-altitude electronics ban, self-service baggage storage areas (eliminating needing to checked baggage), and wireless Internet broadband.
There are routes where high-speed trains have beaten air transport, so that there are no longer air connections. Examples are Paris-Brussels and Cologne-Frankfurt in Europe, Nanjing-Wuhan and Chongqing-Chengdu in China,[78] Tokyo-Nagoya, Tokyo-Sendai and Tokyo-Niigata in Japan. If the train stops at a big airport these short distance airplanes lose an advantage for travelers who want to go to the airport for a long-distance journey. Airplane tickets can include a train segment for the journey, with guaranteed rebooking if the connection is missed, as with normal air travel.
China Southern Airlines, China's largest airline, expects the construction of China's high speed railway network to impact 25% of its route network in the coming years.[79]
[edit]
Statistics from Europe indicate that air traffic is more sensitive than road traffic (car and bus) to competition from HSR, at least on journeys of 400 km and more – perhaps because cars and buses are far more flexible than planes (on the shortest HSR journeys, like Augsburg–Munich, which is served by four ICE routes, air travel is no alternative). TGV Sud-Est reduced the travelling time Paris–Lyon from almost four to about two hours. The rail market share rose from 49 to 72 %. For air and road traffic, the market shares shrunk from 31 to 7 % and from 29 to 21 %, respectively. On the Madrid–Sevilla relation, the AVE connection rose the rail market share from 16 to 52 ; air traffic shrunk from 40 to 13 %; road traffic from 44 to 36 %, hence the rail market amounted to 80% of the combined rail and air traffic.[80] This figure increased to 89% in 2009, according to the Spanish rail operator RENFE[81]
According to Peter Jorritsma, the rail market share y, as compared to planes, can be computed approximately as a function of the travelling time in minutes x by the formula[82]
According to this formula, a journey time of three hours yields 65 % market share. However, market shares are also influenced by ticket prices, so some air carriers have regained market shares by price slashing.[83]
In the US Northeast Corridor, the rail market share between New York and Washington is lower than the formula indicates, 47 %, even though the journey time by the Acela Express is only about 2h 45min.
[edit] Other considerations
Although air travel has higher speeds, more time is needed for taxiing, boarding (fewer doors), security check, luggage drop, and ticket check. Also rail stations are usually located nearer to urban centers than airports. These factors often offset the speed advantage of air travel for mid-distance trips.
[edit] Construction costs
This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. [edit] Weather
Rail travel has less weather dependency than air travel. If the rail system is well-designed and well-operated, severe weather conditions such as heavy snow, heavy fog, and storms do not affect the journeys; whereas flights are generally canceled or delayed under these conditions. Nevertheless, snow and wind can cause some issues and can delay trains.
[edit] Comfort
Although comfort over air travel is often believed to be a trait of high speed rail because train seats are larger and it is easy for passengers to move around during the journey, the comfort advantage of rail is not inherent; it depends on the specific implementation. For example, high speed trains which are not subject to compulsory reservation may carry some standing passengers. Airplanes do not allow standing passengers, so excess passengers are denied boarding. Train passengers can have the choice between standing or waiting for a bookable connection.
[edit] Larger number of target areas
From the operator's point of view, a single train can call at multiple stations, often far more stops than aircraft, and each stop takes much less down time. One train stopping pattern can allow a multitude of possible journeys, increasing the potential market. This increase in potential market allows the operator to schedule more frequent departures than the aircraft, and hence create another good reason for preference.
[edit] Safety
From the point of view of required traffic control systems and infrastructure, high-speed rail has the added advantage of being much simpler to control due to its predictable course, even at very high passenger loads; this issue is becoming more relevant as air traffic reaches its safe limit in busy airspaces over London, New York, and other large centers. High-speed rail systems reduce (but do not eliminate[84][85]) the possibility of collisions with automobiles or people, while lower speed rail systems used by high speed trains may have level crossings.
[edit] Narrow gauge
A number of locations around the world operate comparatively high speed services on narrow-gauge tracks. Japan has services that run at up to 160 km/h on 1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in) tracks, and Queensland's Tilt Train also runs at 160 km/h on upgraded and realigned routes. The Queensland Rail specifications for new rail construction have minimum curve and ruling grade restrictions intended to permit future speeds of 160 km/h or greater. Tunisia is reputed to have the fastest metre gauge trains,[86] with some services operating between Tunis–Sfax at up to 130 km/h.[87]
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